Chapter 2: Intercultural Dimensions
3. Examples of Cultural Dimensions
Which cultural dimensions have a particularly strong influence on intercultural encounters?
Based on years of experience with international and German students as well as with people from companies and non-profit organizations in intercultural trainings, we present the following cultural dimensions:
Hofstede's cultural dimensions form the basis of the dimensions selected here:
- Power Distance, based on Hofstede's "Power Distance."
- Individualism, based on Hofstede's "Individualism vs. Collectivism".
- Uncertainty avoidance, based on Hofstede's "Uncertainty avoidance."
- Achievement orientation, a form of Hofstede's "masculinity" developed further by the GLOBE study.
Two dimensions of Fons Trompenaars also come to the fore:
- Rule orientation, based on Trompenaars' "universalism vs. particularism."
- Emotionality, based on Trompenaar's "Affective vs. Neutral".
Based on Edward T. Hall, the following dimensions are incorporated:
- Time Structuring, based on Hall's "Monochronic vs. Polychronic Understanding of Time."
- Context Orientation, based on Hall's "Low Context vs. High Context" and Trompenaar's "Specific vs. Diffuse."
(See also Hall, 1981; Hofstede, 2001; House, 2004; Trompenaars, 1993)
Uncertainty avoidance
The cultural dimension uncertainty avoidance moves between the two extreme poles: risk-taking vs. safety-loving.
Risk-takers jump into uncharted waters even without precise prior information. Trying things out leads to exploring new things, according to the motto "No risk, no fun!".
"Trust is good, control is better". In this sense, safety-loving individuals first inform themselves about the new environment and require many details in advance before jumping into unfamiliar waters. (See also: Hofstede, 2001)
Power Distance
The cultural dimension of power distance moves between the two extremes: hierarchical vs. egalitarian.
Individuals with a strong hierarchical understanding expect higher-ups to act for the good of the workforce, a group, or a project team, to give clear instructions, and to take responsibility. They rarely question the decisions of more senior or senior people and usually carry out tasks without contradiction. Leaders with a strong sense of hierarchy hardly give their employees any freedom to make decisions or have a say, but they also tend to take full responsibility themselves, clearly assign tasks, and precisely define the scope of action as well as the role of employees or students.
People with a strong egalitarian understanding prefer a balanced distribution of power as well as mutual openness and exchange among themselves. Decisions are discussed within the team, different views and opinions are expressed and included. A top-down and bottom-up flow of information is desired. People who are used to egalitarian conditions tend to act independently and are willing to take responsibility. Leaders who advocate flat hierarchies involve employees in decision-making processes, but also expect a high degree of autonomy and a sense of responsibility. (See also: Hofstede, 2001)
Individualism
The cultural dimension individualism moves between the two extreme poles: individualistic vs. collectivistic.
Individualistic individuals focus on self-actualization and the assertion of their own needs and desires, in line with the motto "Everyone is the architect of his own happiness. Even when pressure is exerted by a group, individualistic individuals tend to assert their own views.
Individuals who are strongly collectivistic tend to follow the motto "One for all and all for one." The burden is shared among many shoulders, success is achieved and savored together; failures tend to be borne by everyone involved. However, community orientation, i.e. collectivism, and a strong hierarchical power distance are not mutually exclusive. In this case, obedience and loyalty with the group or responsible leadership of the community are paramount. The needs of the group to which one feels connected in a particular situation, e.g., teammates, family members, etc., take precedence over individual desires. (See also: Hofstede, 2001).
Achievement Orientation
The cultural dimension of achievement orientation moves between the two extremes: achievement-oriented vs. socially-oriented.
Achievement-oriented individuals are characterized by ambition, a need for a career, and great ambition. Individual performance is in the foreground, in line with the motto "No pain, no gain" or "Live to work." Very good grades, the amount of salary, professional advancement, their position and career opportunities are very important to performance-oriented individuals.
People who are socially oriented attach particular importance to maintaining good relationships with employees, colleagues or fellow students and to feeling comfortable in their workplace or study environment. The focus is on social responsibility and a sense of community. This attitude can be summed up in the following mottos: "If everyone takes care of each other, everyone is taken care of" or "Work to live." (See also: House, 2004)
Time Structuring
The cultural dimension of time structuring moves between the two extremes: monochronic vs. polychronic.
Individuals with a linear, monochronic understanding of time conceive of time as a sequence of distinct events. Since modern times, a primarily linear understanding of time has existed in Western and Northern Europe, i.e., time intervals that lie on a timeline should be filled; time should be used and appropriated in the form of work. According to the linear, monochronic structuring of time, good planning and organization are required to use time wisely, true to the motto "time is money." Therefore, an attempt is made to keep deadlines and obligations exactly. The structured processing of tasks in a certain order is in the foreground, not the relationship with fellow human beings, fellow students or colleagues. Punctuality is an important requirement. Information is preferably exchanged via data and facts. Adherence to rules and regulations is important to individuals with a linear, monochronic understanding of time. They appreciate it when a project runs according to the previously worked out plan.
Individuals with a polychronic understanding of time perceive time as a fuzzily delineated space. By nature, several things can happen simultaneously in the same time spectrum. Persons with a polychronic time structuring tend to complete several tasks at the same time; plans are seen by them as postponable, missed opportunities can be made up for later. Interruptions are the rule, structured work tends to be the exception. The achievement of goals and the quality of work depend more on the positive shaping of relationships than on adherence to fixed schedules. Individuals with polychronic understandings of time show strong interest in current relationships in the here and now.(See also: Hall, 1981)
Emotionality
The cultural dimension emotionality moves between the two extremes: emotional vs. neutral.
Individuals with an emotional expression tend to openly display their feelings according to a particular occasion in public, in university life and in a professional context, to give free rein to their emotions. This may be reflected in extroverted behavior (loudness, pronounced body language, facial expressions, gestures). The expression of spontaneous feelings in public is also appreciated by others rather than openness.
In contrast, neutral people try to control or hide emerging feelings in public and at work. With others, they value self-control and restraint. During a discussion, they prefer to argue on the factual level. (See also: Trompenaars, 1993)
Rule Orientation
The cultural dimension rule orientation moves between the two extreme poles: rule-oriented vs. situation-dependent.
Individuals with a rule-oriented characteristic trust that laws, legal rules, and regulations will make coexistence as fair as possible for everyone. Laws and standards should apply to everyone, regardless of status and relationship. Exceptions are undesirable because they could weaken generally applicable rules or even the legal system.
Individuals with a situation-dependent characteristic reject the insistence on rules or strict adherence to laws or regulations. They tend to trust their own judgment. Loyalty to one another (family, friends, colleagues) enjoys a higher priority than sets of rules or legal regulations. The accompanying circumstances, the context, should be taken into account when assessing a situation, regardless of rules, regulations or laws. People who are situationally oriented do not separate as strongly between the factual and the personal. (See also: Trompenaars, 1993)
Context Orientation
The cultural dimension context orientation moves between the two extremes: fact-oriented and direct vs. relationship-oriented and indirect.
For individuals who are fact-oriented and direct, the focus is on a direct communication style and the matter at hand. Instructions, problems, and proposed solutions are expressed explicitly and clearly. Communication is primarily for the exchange of information. The motto here is: "Get to the point!". Conflict is seen as useful if it moves the people involved forward. A fact-oriented relationship is primarily there to settle the factual and business content. A personal relationship may or may not develop.
Individuals with a relationship-oriented and indirect communication style emphasize the inclusion of the environment of a particular situation. Unpleasant messages tend to be addressed in an implicit and coded manner. Direct statements are usually avoided. Some messages can only be decoded if the "code" is known.
In a relationship-oriented relationship, the whole person is involved in a business relationship and personal contact is established. In many countries, such a broad-based relationship is not only preferred, but is a condition for the success of a business deal. One starts from the personal.
(See also: Hall, 1981)
The cultural dimension uncertainty avoidance moves between the two extreme poles: risk-taking vs. safety-loving.
Risk-takers jump into uncharted waters even without precise prior information. Trying things out leads to exploring new things, according to the motto "No risk, no fun!".
"Trust is good, control is better". In this sense, safety-loving individuals first inform themselves about the new environment and require many details in advance before jumping into unfamiliar waters. (See also: Hofstede, 2001)
Power Distance
The cultural dimension of power distance moves between the two extremes: hierarchical vs. egalitarian.
Individuals with a strong hierarchical understanding expect higher-ups to act for the good of the workforce, a group, or a project team, to give clear instructions, and to take responsibility. They rarely question the decisions of more senior or senior people and usually carry out tasks without contradiction. Leaders with a strong sense of hierarchy hardly give their employees any freedom to make decisions or have a say, but they also tend to take full responsibility themselves, clearly assign tasks, and precisely define the scope of action as well as the role of employees or students.
People with a strong egalitarian understanding prefer a balanced distribution of power as well as mutual openness and exchange among themselves. Decisions are discussed within the team, different views and opinions are expressed and included. A top-down and bottom-up flow of information is desired. People who are used to egalitarian conditions tend to act independently and are willing to take responsibility. Leaders who advocate flat hierarchies involve employees in decision-making processes, but also expect a high degree of autonomy and a sense of responsibility. (See also: Hofstede, 2001)
Individualism
The cultural dimension individualism moves between the two extreme poles: individualistic vs. collectivistic.
Individualistic individuals focus on self-actualization and the assertion of their own needs and desires, in line with the motto "Everyone is the architect of his own happiness. Even when pressure is exerted by a group, individualistic individuals tend to assert their own views.
Individuals who are strongly collectivistic tend to follow the motto "One for all and all for one." The burden is shared among many shoulders, success is achieved and savored together; failures tend to be borne by everyone involved. However, community orientation, i.e. collectivism, and a strong hierarchical power distance are not mutually exclusive. In this case, obedience and loyalty with the group or responsible leadership of the community are paramount. The needs of the group to which one feels connected in a particular situation, e.g., teammates, family members, etc., take precedence over individual desires. (See also: Hofstede, 2001).
Achievement Orientation
The cultural dimension of achievement orientation moves between the two extremes: achievement-oriented vs. socially-oriented.
Achievement-oriented individuals are characterized by ambition, a need for a career, and great ambition. Individual performance is in the foreground, in line with the motto "No pain, no gain" or "Live to work." Very good grades, the amount of salary, professional advancement, their position and career opportunities are very important to performance-oriented individuals.
People who are socially oriented attach particular importance to maintaining good relationships with employees, colleagues or fellow students and to feeling comfortable in their workplace or study environment. The focus is on social responsibility and a sense of community. This attitude can be summed up in the following mottos: "If everyone takes care of each other, everyone is taken care of" or "Work to live." (See also: House, 2004)
Time Structuring
The cultural dimension of time structuring moves between the two extremes: monochronic vs. polychronic.
Individuals with a linear, monochronic understanding of time conceive of time as a sequence of distinct events. Since modern times, a primarily linear understanding of time has existed in Western and Northern Europe, i.e., time intervals that lie on a timeline should be filled; time should be used and appropriated in the form of work. According to the linear, monochronic structuring of time, good planning and organization are required to use time wisely, true to the motto "time is money." Therefore, an attempt is made to keep deadlines and obligations exactly. The structured processing of tasks in a certain order is in the foreground, not the relationship with fellow human beings, fellow students or colleagues. Punctuality is an important requirement. Information is preferably exchanged via data and facts. Adherence to rules and regulations is important to individuals with a linear, monochronic understanding of time. They appreciate it when a project runs according to the previously worked out plan.
Individuals with a polychronic understanding of time perceive time as a fuzzily delineated space. By nature, several things can happen simultaneously in the same time spectrum. Persons with a polychronic time structuring tend to complete several tasks at the same time; plans are seen by them as postponable, missed opportunities can be made up for later. Interruptions are the rule, structured work tends to be the exception. The achievement of goals and the quality of work depend more on the positive shaping of relationships than on adherence to fixed schedules. Individuals with polychronic understandings of time show strong interest in current relationships in the here and now.(See also: Hall, 1981)
Emotionality
The cultural dimension emotionality moves between the two extremes: emotional vs. neutral.
Individuals with an emotional expression tend to openly display their feelings according to a particular occasion in public, in university life and in a professional context, to give free rein to their emotions. This may be reflected in extroverted behavior (loudness, pronounced body language, facial expressions, gestures). The expression of spontaneous feelings in public is also appreciated by others rather than openness.
In contrast, neutral people try to control or hide emerging feelings in public and at work. With others, they value self-control and restraint. During a discussion, they prefer to argue on the factual level. (See also: Trompenaars, 1993)
Rule Orientation
The cultural dimension rule orientation moves between the two extreme poles: rule-oriented vs. situation-dependent.
Individuals with a rule-oriented characteristic trust that laws, legal rules, and regulations will make coexistence as fair as possible for everyone. Laws and standards should apply to everyone, regardless of status and relationship. Exceptions are undesirable because they could weaken generally applicable rules or even the legal system.
Individuals with a situation-dependent characteristic reject the insistence on rules or strict adherence to laws or regulations. They tend to trust their own judgment. Loyalty to one another (family, friends, colleagues) enjoys a higher priority than sets of rules or legal regulations. The accompanying circumstances, the context, should be taken into account when assessing a situation, regardless of rules, regulations or laws. People who are situationally oriented do not separate as strongly between the factual and the personal. (See also: Trompenaars, 1993)
Context Orientation
The cultural dimension context orientation moves between the two extremes: fact-oriented and direct vs. relationship-oriented and indirect.
For individuals who are fact-oriented and direct, the focus is on a direct communication style and the matter at hand. Instructions, problems, and proposed solutions are expressed explicitly and clearly. Communication is primarily for the exchange of information. The motto here is: "Get to the point!". Conflict is seen as useful if it moves the people involved forward. A fact-oriented relationship is primarily there to settle the factual and business content. A personal relationship may or may not develop.
Individuals with a relationship-oriented and indirect communication style emphasize the inclusion of the environment of a particular situation. Unpleasant messages tend to be addressed in an implicit and coded manner. Direct statements are usually avoided. Some messages can only be decoded if the "code" is known.
In a relationship-oriented relationship, the whole person is involved in a business relationship and personal contact is established. In many countries, such a broad-based relationship is not only preferred, but is a condition for the success of a business deal. One starts from the personal.
(See also: Hall, 1981)