Chapter 3: Intercultural Competences
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| Date: | Friday, 1 November 2024, 5:30 AM |
1. Introduction to Intercultural Competences
Experience of an international student in Brasilia
When you go to a pub in Brazil with your friends to drink a little and talk, there is a big difference when it comes to paying the bill. I'm used to it from Germany that when drinking in a pub, everyone drinks their own beer. In Brazil, the beer is sold in 600-ml bottles and is thus filled into small glasses for the entire group. And that's not all: no matter how much you drink, at the end of the evening the bill is split by everyone with an equal share!
Source of information: (Berninghausen 2012)
2. Definition of Intercultural Competences
3. Three Levels of Intercultural Competence
What qualities do managers need in order to turn implicit cultural conflicts into explicit ones?
Intercultural learning is divided into similar areas by most researchers. While A. Thomas uses the attributes affectiveness, cognition and behaviour (cf. Müller and Gelbrich, 2004, p. 794), Hofstede describes intercultural competence as a process of three levels: awareness, knowledge and skills (cf. Hofstede, 2001).
Figure: Elements of intercultural competence (Own illustration based on Hofstede, 2001)
For Schulz von Thun (1989, p. 107) there are "Three Streets of Learning", which consist of:
- Self-discovery (emotional or affective)
- Transmitting information (cognitive)
- Behavioural training (actional, behavioural)
Affective level
On the affective level, an awareness process has to set in, so you can recognise your own cultural bias and put it into perspective. Awareness first and foremost means that you need to be aware of the fact that your own culture is bound by prejudice and norms. This includes the recognition that the environment in which you were raised in is just as valid for you as it is for those who were programmed with another set of "software". There is no objective truth; every culture has found its own unique solutions of how to deal with difficulties and how to solve its problems. You need the ability to empathise, to tolerate ambiguity and to endure contradictory situations, as well as respect for differing viewpoints and a curiosity for new challenges.
On the affective level, an awareness process has to set in, so you can recognise your own cultural bias and put it into perspective. Awareness first and foremost means that you need to be aware of the fact that your own culture is bound by prejudice and norms. This includes the recognition that the environment in which you were raised in is just as valid for you as it is for those who were programmed with another set of "software". There is no objective truth; every culture has found its own unique solutions of how to deal with difficulties and how to solve its problems. You need the ability to empathise, to tolerate ambiguity and to endure contradictory situations, as well as respect for differing viewpoints and a curiosity for new challenges.
Cognitive level
The cognitive level includes knowledge about the foreign culture, language, regional and cultural conventions, politics, history as well as various values and norms. At the same time, this level also includes an understanding of various patterns of cultural value systems (such as, for instance, the varying polarities of organisational cultures), which make it easier to classify differences.
This knowledge also includes all forms of perception, thoughts, values and actions that are seen as obligatory by the majority of the members of a particular culture. Cultural anthropologists like Hall, Hofstede, Lewis and Trompenaars have created classification systems for intercultural differences that can be used for recognising patterns in intercultural experience (cf. Unit 2 "Cultural Dimensions").
Behavioural level
Finally, the behavioural level requires the ability to use awareness and knowledge in practice. Use your skills by utilising techniques of meta-level communication and active listening (cf. Unit 3 "Communication, Prejudice and Racism") as well as the skills to switch perspectives and re-frame situations in a new way (in this Unit). An essential condition for competence in acting interculturally is the readiness and ability to deal with the "foreign" in an appreciatively way (cf. Unit 2 "Cultural Dimensions" for cultural dimensions and square of values).
Major source of information: Berninghausen Hecht-El Minshawi 2015
4. Avoiding Misunderstandings
- How do we appreciatively interact? The most important techniques for an appreciative interaction are metacommunication
- active listening
- role distance and
- change of perspective
- reframing
Metacommunication: Talk about one's own irritation
The definition of metacommunication according to Watzlawick is "communication about communication". Comments or reactions of the communication partner are commented on, corrected, modified, specified and evaluated. The communication partners can either react by agreeing or rejecting. The method and conditions of communication become subject of communication. Thus, metacommunication turns into an important instrument in understanding social interaction between the communication partners. Metacommunication is especially helpful when it comes to communicative misunderstandings and confusion; it improves our communication capability because of its analytical and reflective nature.
Active listening: Give feedback with I-messages; reflect back questions of understanding and feelings
In active listening the conversation partner is shown the readiness to listen. Receptive attention is primarily possible when outstanding interest in a conversation is expressed. A prerequisite for this purpose is that receptiveness is not disturbed by a secondary objective or distraction from the outside. Therefore, active listening means to try and empathize with the conversation partner, to think along during the conversation and to show attention and interest to the conversation partner.
Change of perspective: Look at the situation from the outside. Question: How do the others see me? Why am I acting like this?
Looking at the situation objectively and asking yourself: How do others see me? Why am I acting this way? A change of perspective is a key to self-confidence and reflective perception. In the debate between the strange and the familiar, the change of perspective enhances one's own perception by trying to take on the point of view of the others.
Content- and Context-reframing: Content-reframing: What else could this mean? What are the positive signals of this behavior? Context-reframing: When could this behavior be useful? Where could it be a resource?
The positive intention of the negotiating person to recognize: What could this behavior mean? What are the positive signals sent by this behavior? In content-reframing possible explanation should be found for the strange behavior of the other, without imputing an evil intention. For this purpose, it is useful to consciously distance oneself from the situation and to look at the facts from a third perspective. It is followed by context-reframing which means to recognize alternative interpretations: When could this behavior be useful? Where could it be used as a resource?
Major source of information for these entries: O'Connor and Symor, 1997
5. Intercultural Confidence Scale
The attitude towards different cultures could take three different forms. Some people believe that their culture is dominant or better than others. Alternatively, cultures could be perceived to be a little different from one another. Yet others could believe in the cultures being different, but not necessarily inferior or superior to their own.
The Intercultural Confidence Scale is based on the Development Model of Intercultural Sensitivity, developed by Hammer, Bennett, and Wiseman’s (2003) and the intercultural sensitivity scale developed by Löhr (2010, 2012). It measures an individual’s attitudes and behavior in the context of cultural differences, when that individual meets people from other cultural groups.
It is always possible for a person to holistically perceive intercultural situations using all three perspectives. The preferred perception of a particular situation can be dynamically interpreted using any of these three perspectives based upon the context. For example, the observer’s current emotional state, experiences, and the environment in which the situation takes place can all influence how an intercultural situation is being perceived and which of the three perspectives is currently dominant.
Ethno-Centric Perspective (Belongingness to a dominant culture)
Ethnocentrism indicates that the norms of one’s own culture are central to an individual’s worldview. The norms and rules of behavior, which are predominant in one’s own culture, are the standards and benchmarks against which individuals judge other cultures.
With such a perspective, one has a strong sense of belonging with the people from one’s own culture. A strong sense of “we” and “us” is contrasted with “the others”. Consequently, an ethnocentric perspective often views own cultural values and norms as being superior to those of other cultures.
In principle, being aware of and respecting one’s own values is an exemplary quality. However, having an ethnocentric perception can also lead to people from other cultures being given far too little acceptance and appreciation. From an ethnocentric perspective, cultural differences are frequently interpreted in a manner that one’s own culture emerges as the dominant one and people from other cultures are stereotyped. This can lead to the development of prejudices against specific groups or individuals based on their differing cultural background.
Ethno-Minimalistic Perspective (Minimization of the differences between cultures)
This perspective emphasizes the similarities that people of different cultures have with one another. The perspective indicates that humans have similar values and that cultural norms have only limited influence on people.
With this perspective one tends to assess everyone equally, irrespective of cultural differences, using a single criterion, striving hard to avoid stereotyping people based on their backgrounds. As liberal-minded and cosmopolitan individuals, those with this perspective consider all cultures to be driven by similar universal values.
In many situations, this can be a very useful strategy. However, in conflicting intercultural situations, those using this perspective are in danger of ignoring critical differences between the values, norms, and behavioral reactions that could have led to the conflict. Instead, one might attribute just the personal and individual traits of the conflicting parties as the major stimulants for the escalating situation. This prevents them from looking at the differing contextual points of view that the conflicting parties hold, as they ignore the important differences between the values and norms in action.
The belief that people around the world are no different from one another does show an inclusive attitude towards those who are not from our own culture. Those with this perspective try to practice what they believe and treat people from different cultures and groups with equal respect. However, without a deeper understanding and appreciation of the cultural values norms, rules, and strategies driving the behavior of people from different cultural groups, such ideals are often unfulfilled and the equality and respect often are limited to a superficial level. Knowing and respecting such differences, on the other hand, can help people from different cultures feel more appreciated and welcome.
Ethno-Relative Perspective (Flexible appreciation of the different strengths of various cultures, including one’s own)
People with an ethno-relative perspective believe in the strong influence of their culture on their behavior and attitudes, but also tend to accept and respect the cultural differences between people. They interpret the values, rules, and behavior of other cultures in the context of the norms existing in those cultures and accept that such norms could differ from those in their own culture.
This flexibility in interpreting the situation relating to different cultural norms helps to view the situation from various points of view. People with this perspective are able to understand and respect the perspectives of others in order to interpret the situation. This can help to identify and understand the situation and to differentiate the individual and cultural motives behind many misunderstandings. It helps them in not only deescalating a conflict situation, but also in helping avoid many misunderstandings that could lead to such conflicts.
With an ethno-relative perspective, one is able to more objectively reflect upon the stereotypes about various cultural groups and enhance one’s understanding of and interactions with the different cultures by acting upon these reflections. Not having a fixed position about one’s own culture being superior to others or about having to ignore differences between cultures frees people with such a perspective to explore the nuances of cultural differences. This in turn helps them develop strategies for successful intercultural interactions.
6. Online Activity
7. Self Assessment
For this activity, please follow the link: Intercultural Strategic Competence Scale
8. Individual Reflections
Homework - Individual Reflections
1. Can you give an example where you feel that you personally reacted in an intercultural sensitive way, referring to the ethno-relative stage of cultural sensitivity?
Output: comment to this post or
post a podcast or a short video
Answer here
2. Have you ever witnessed a situation where somebody acted in a very incompetent way in an intercultural setting?
Output: comment to this post or post a podcast or a
short video
Answer here
3. Can you provide an example you witnessed where somebody used meta-communication as a tool to better understand a person of different cultural origin?
Output: comment to this post
or post a podcast or a short video
Answer here
9. Additional Information & Literature
Intercultural Competence
Staircase Model
Learn a new culture
Literature
Bégin-Caouette, O. (2013). Globally networked learning environments as eduscapes for mutual understanding. Critical Intersections in Education, 1, 54-70. Retrieved from https://jps. library.utoronto.ca/index.php/cie/article/view/19351/16584
Bennett, M. J. & Hammer, M. R., The Intercultural Development Inventory: Manual, Intercultural Communication Institute, Portland, OR 1998
Bennett, M.J., Towards Ethnorelativism: A Development Model of Intercultural Sensitivity. In R. M. Paige (Hrsg.). Cross Cultual Orientation: New Conceptualizations and Applications, University Press of America, Inc., Lanham, MD 1986
Berninghausen, Kammler, Gunderson, Kühnen, Schönhagen, Lost in Transnation, Towards an Intercultural Dimension on Campus, Bremen 2009
Berninghausen J., Hecht-El Minshawi, B., Interkulturelle Kompetenz, Managing Cultural Diversity, Trainingshandbuch, Frankfurt 2007
Berninghausen, J., »Management im interkulturellen Kontext«, in: Berninghausen, J., Kuenzer, V., Wirtschaft als Interkulturelle Herausforderung, IKO, Frankfurt 2006
Berninghausen J., Der Spagat zwischen Reproduktion und Überwindung von Klischees – praktische Vermittlung interkultureller Kompetenz für angehende Manager an der Hochschule Bremen, in: Interculture Journal, 2006/1, Jena
Birnstiel, K., Auf dem Laufsteg der Diskurse, FAZ, 27. Juli 2011
Cox, T., Beale, R. L., Developing Competency to Manage Diversity. Berret-Koehler: San Francisco 1997
Deardorff, D. K., Interkulturelle Kompetenz – Schlüsselkompetenz des 21. Jahrhunderts? Thesenpapier der Bertelsmannstiftung auf Basis der Interkulturellen Kompetenz-Modelle von Dr. Darla K. Deardorff, Bertelsmann Stiftung, 2006, Online: http://www.bertelsmann-stiftung.de/cps/rde/xbcr/SID-6D284854-7B6A142F/bst/xcms_bst_dms_17145_18254_2.pdf [09.07.09].
Dilts, R. B., Effective Presentation Skills, Meta publications 1994
Dilts, R. B., Kommunikation in Gruppen und Teams, Paderborn 1997
Geertz, C., »Dichte Beschreibungen. Bemerkung zu einer deutenden Theorie von Kultur«, in: Dichte Beschreibung, Frankfurt/Main 1983
Hammer, M. R., Bennett, M. J. & Wiseman, R., Measuring intercultural sensitivity: The intercultural development inventory.,International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 27, 421–443, 2003
Hofstede, G., Bond, M. H., The Confucius connection: From cultural roots to economic growth, Organisation Dynamics 16, 1988
Hofstede, G., Culture’s consequences: International differences in work related values, Sage, London 1980
Hofstede, G., Lokales Denken, globales Handeln, Kulturen, Zusammenarbeit und Management, Verlag C. H. Beck, München 1997
Institut für Interkulturelles Management (Hg.), Interkulturelles Personalmanagement, Gabler, Wiesbaden, 1994
Löhr, A., Entwicklung eines Fragebogens zur Interkulturellen Sensibilität, unveröffentlichte Diplomarbeit, Universität Bremen 2010
Schiffmann, J., Interkulturelle Kompetenz und interkulturelle Kommunikation in Theorie und Praxis. Theoretische Fundierung und Konzeptentwurf für ein interkulturelles Assessment, unveröffentlichte Magisterarbeit, Universität Bremen 2009
Schulz von Thun, F., »Psychologische Vorgänge in der zwischenmenschlichen Kommunikation«, in: Fittkau, B., u. a., Kommunizieren, lernen und umlernen, Trainingskonzeptionen und Erfahrungen, Aachen 1989
Schulz von Thun, F., Miteinander reden: 1, Stile, Werte und Persönlichkeitsentwicklung, Reinbek bei Hamburg 1981
Schulz von Thun, F., Miteinander reden: 2, Stile, Werte und Persönlichkeitsentwicklung, Reinbek bei Hamburg 2006
Thomas, A., Interkulturelle Kompetenz. Grundlagen, Probleme und Konzepte. Erwägen – Wissen – Ethik 14 (1), Stuttgart 2003
Hammer, M. R., Bennett, M. J., & Wiseman, R. (2003). Measuring intercultural sensitivity: The Intercultural Development Inventory. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 27(4), 21–443. DOI: 10.1016/S0147-1767(03)00032-4 .
Löhr, A. (2010). Entwicklung eines Fragebogens zur Interkulturellen Sensibilität. [Diplomarbeit, Universität Bremen].
Löhr A. (2012). Messung Interkultureller Sensibilität: Veränderte Sichtweisen durch interkulturelle Trainings und Auslandsaufenthalte im Internationalen Studiengang Global Management. In J. Berninghausen (Ed.), AußenEinsichten. Interkulturelle Fallbeispiele von deutschen und internationalen Studierenden aus dem Auslandsjahr (pp. 57-70).
Bennett, M.J., Towards Ethnorelativism: A Development Model of Intercultural Sensitivity. In R. M. Paige (Hrsg.). Cross Cultual Orientation: New Conceptualizations and Applications, University Press of America, Inc., Lanham, MD 1986
Berninghausen, Kammler, Gunderson, Kühnen, Schönhagen, Lost in Transnation, Towards an Intercultural Dimension on Campus, Bremen 2009
Berninghausen J., Hecht-El Minshawi, B., Interkulturelle Kompetenz, Managing Cultural Diversity, Trainingshandbuch, Frankfurt 2007
Berninghausen, J., »Management im interkulturellen Kontext«, in: Berninghausen, J., Kuenzer, V., Wirtschaft als Interkulturelle Herausforderung, IKO, Frankfurt 2006
Berninghausen J., Der Spagat zwischen Reproduktion und Überwindung von Klischees – praktische Vermittlung interkultureller Kompetenz für angehende Manager an der Hochschule Bremen, in: Interculture Journal, 2006/1, Jena
Birnstiel, K., Auf dem Laufsteg der Diskurse, FAZ, 27. Juli 2011
Cox, T., Beale, R. L., Developing Competency to Manage Diversity. Berret-Koehler: San Francisco 1997
Deardorff, D. K., Interkulturelle Kompetenz – Schlüsselkompetenz des 21. Jahrhunderts? Thesenpapier der Bertelsmannstiftung auf Basis der Interkulturellen Kompetenz-Modelle von Dr. Darla K. Deardorff, Bertelsmann Stiftung, 2006, Online: http://www.bertelsmann-stiftung.de/cps/rde/xbcr/SID-6D284854-7B6A142F/bst/xcms_bst_dms_17145_18254_2.pdf [09.07.09].
Dilts, R. B., Effective Presentation Skills, Meta publications 1994
Dilts, R. B., Kommunikation in Gruppen und Teams, Paderborn 1997
Geertz, C., »Dichte Beschreibungen. Bemerkung zu einer deutenden Theorie von Kultur«, in: Dichte Beschreibung, Frankfurt/Main 1983
Hammer, M. R., Bennett, M. J. & Wiseman, R., Measuring intercultural sensitivity: The intercultural development inventory.,International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 27, 421–443, 2003
Hofstede, G., Bond, M. H., The Confucius connection: From cultural roots to economic growth, Organisation Dynamics 16, 1988
Hofstede, G., Culture’s consequences: International differences in work related values, Sage, London 1980
Hofstede, G., Lokales Denken, globales Handeln, Kulturen, Zusammenarbeit und Management, Verlag C. H. Beck, München 1997
Institut für Interkulturelles Management (Hg.), Interkulturelles Personalmanagement, Gabler, Wiesbaden, 1994
Löhr, A., Entwicklung eines Fragebogens zur Interkulturellen Sensibilität, unveröffentlichte Diplomarbeit, Universität Bremen 2010
Schiffmann, J., Interkulturelle Kompetenz und interkulturelle Kommunikation in Theorie und Praxis. Theoretische Fundierung und Konzeptentwurf für ein interkulturelles Assessment, unveröffentlichte Magisterarbeit, Universität Bremen 2009
Schulz von Thun, F., »Psychologische Vorgänge in der zwischenmenschlichen Kommunikation«, in: Fittkau, B., u. a., Kommunizieren, lernen und umlernen, Trainingskonzeptionen und Erfahrungen, Aachen 1989
Schulz von Thun, F., Miteinander reden: 1, Stile, Werte und Persönlichkeitsentwicklung, Reinbek bei Hamburg 1981
Schulz von Thun, F., Miteinander reden: 2, Stile, Werte und Persönlichkeitsentwicklung, Reinbek bei Hamburg 2006
Thomas, A., Interkulturelle Kompetenz. Grundlagen, Probleme und Konzepte. Erwägen – Wissen – Ethik 14 (1), Stuttgart 2003
Hammer, M. R., Bennett, M. J., & Wiseman, R. (2003). Measuring intercultural sensitivity: The Intercultural Development Inventory. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 27(4), 21–443. DOI: 10.1016/S0147-1767(03)00032-4 .
Löhr, A. (2010). Entwicklung eines Fragebogens zur Interkulturellen Sensibilität. [Diplomarbeit, Universität Bremen].
Löhr A. (2012). Messung Interkultureller Sensibilität: Veränderte Sichtweisen durch interkulturelle Trainings und Auslandsaufenthalte im Internationalen Studiengang Global Management. In J. Berninghausen (Ed.), AußenEinsichten. Interkulturelle Fallbeispiele von deutschen und internationalen Studierenden aus dem Auslandsjahr (pp. 57-70).