Chapter 1: Culture
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| Date: | Friday, 1 November 2024, 4:23 AM |
1. Introduction to Culture
Personal experience by Jutta Berninghausen
First day in Germany
A few years ago, I gave an intercultural training in the master program "Global Management". The students had come to Bremen, Germany, from all over the world for this program and this was the first day of their new studies.
Around noon, the person in charge of the program brought another student to the class. She had just picked him up from the airport and his suitcase was placed in a corner. In the evening, she was going to take him to his dorm.
Biplap was from India, 42 years old, and had a small software company in Bangalore. The flight didn't seem to have stressed him out much, because he immediately joined in the discussions, gave valuable answers, and at first glance seemed to me to be a worldly, interculturally experienced person. But when I arrived at the university the next morning, there was great excitement. Biplap wanted to fly back home immediately.
What had happened?
The night before, as arranged, he had been taken to his dorm and then left alone. It was the first night of his life that he had slept alone. Not only had he never lived alone before, he had never cooked. No one made him anything to eat, he didn't know how to buy anything. Finally, he went to bed early and got up at dawn the next morning to buy something to eat on the street, as he was used to doing in India.
But to his great shock, the streets were deserted. No one was on the street, no store was open. So, still hungry, he finally got to the college, waited until the office opened, and asked for a ride home. When fellow students heard his story, a Bangladeshi and a Sri Lankan immediately came forward with similar experiences to relate.
One of them was staying with a host family. He said that on the first evening he was received very kindly by his host mother, the family also invited him to dinner and showed him around, but the very next day he came home to find only a note: "We are out, feel at home, take what you need from the fridge."
A behavior, completely normal in Germany, was for him a great lack of hospitality. During the lunch break, the three Asians arranged to meet and decided to rent a two-room apartment together. One room for sleeping for all of them together, one for living. In Germany, however, students all insist on a single room. Having to share a room with another student would be considered an imposition.
As I was driving home in the afternoon after practice, I ran into the three of them on the way home. All three had clasped each other around the shoulder and were walking home united. The first culture shock seemed to be over.
It was then that I realized for the first time that visiting students in our country face much greater challenges than just studying. Since there are no campus universities in Germany that regulate the entire life for students, they also have to find their way in a completely new everyday life - a life that usually requires a much greater degree of independence and individualism from them than they are used to at home.
2. What is Culture?
Since many centuries, culture has been seen as artificially created by man in distinction to nature.
A distinction that is still meaningful and necessary today.
Culture shows itself in history, politics, economy, fine arts, architecture, customs and in the languages of a country or a region.
Today, culture is also defined as the particular way a group of people organize their lives, solve problems or make decisions.
However people are not only influenced by the national culture, but also by social class, age, sex, company affiliation, etc..
Therefore each person simultaneously belongs to a long list of various cultural groups and categories.
Culture shows itself in history, politics, economy, fine arts, architecture, customs and in the languages of a country or a region.
Today, culture is also defined as the particular way a group of people organize their lives, solve problems or make decisions.
However people are not only influenced by the national culture, but also by social class, age, sex, company affiliation, etc..
Therefore each person simultaneously belongs to a long list of various cultural groups and categories.
Culture is understood as a dynamic entity. Nowadays there is an increasing interconnection and interpenetration of different cultures in the urban world.
People deal with similar problems and needs. But the way problems are solved or needs are met is different. People and organizations cannot be understood without considering the meaning they give to their environment. According to ethnologist Clifford Geertz, culture is the pattern of meaning-making within which people interpret their experiences and guide their actions. The clash of different cultural patterns can lead to misunderstandings and stumbling blocks in mutual understanding. Culture is subject to processes of change: It is possible for people to change behaviors or adapt to different norms and rules relatively quickly. However, the underlying values and beliefs are difficult to abandon. Consequently, values and role ideals often lag behind the real world.
People deal with similar problems and needs. But the way problems are solved or needs are met is different. People and organizations cannot be understood without considering the meaning they give to their environment. According to ethnologist Clifford Geertz, culture is the pattern of meaning-making within which people interpret their experiences and guide their actions. The clash of different cultural patterns can lead to misunderstandings and stumbling blocks in mutual understanding. Culture is subject to processes of change: It is possible for people to change behaviors or adapt to different norms and rules relatively quickly. However, the underlying values and beliefs are difficult to abandon. Consequently, values and role ideals often lag behind the real world.
(See also: Berninghausen, 2012).
Figure: Based on Luthans, 1995
3. Cultural Determination of our Perception
What does appear first, the old lady or the young women?
Figure: Optical Illusion III (Block/Yuker, 2006, p. 20)
Perception describes the process of how we experience, recognize, categorize and interpret other people and our environment. Every person - shaped by his or her background, socialization, experience, etc. - perceives people, objects, behaviors, situations differently. All phenomena of the world are perceived through a “cultural lens”. The clash of different perceptions can lead to misunderstandings, uncertainty and irritation. The change of perception is indispensable to enable successful interaction with foreign cultures. Our perception is generally affected by feelings and prejudices. To become aware of this fact can help to appropriately manage cultural misunderstandings.
A collectively shared perception can become entrenched and reinforced. If this is the case, we speak of prejudices and stereotypes. Perception is connected with prejudice and negative stereotypes – something that we all have. Only by becoming aware of the different perceptions can one learn to deal constructively with one's individual stereotypes and prejudices. This requires a high degree of self-reflection and the ability to understand the process of perception.
What is important to remember is that stereotypes exist for a reason. They are human beings’ method to categorize otherwise a chaotic world. They are mental structures, which simplify the complex stimuli from one's environment and facilitate their comprehension. In this way, we see what we are taught to see, and at the same time our observations also confirm the stereotype. Expectations drive our attention as observers. Having stereotypes may even lead one to see things that are not really there. As such, stereotypes are not bad or good, but they can influence intercultural interactions in different ways. An observer tends to favour information that is consistent with existing expectancies, and tends to ignore, or reject information that is inconsistent with the stereotypes. According to some studies, people tend to favour hypotheses based on stereotypes even when they have a reason to suspect the validity of the stereotype (Johnston & Macrae 1994). Stereotypes are often resistant to change. Experiences at variance with the stereotype usually do not change the stereotype but are interpreted as exceptions. Stereotypes reduce our mental energy expenditure. This is because forming groups and assigning similar characteristics to groups make it easier for us to “know” and “understand” those people. Stereotypes save energy and don’t always have to be negative. What we should keep in mind is that stereotypes are generalizations and make reference to broad characteristics that in no way represent a full picture of that group or individual. Stereotypes are beliefs that we have about the characteristics of a group. The word prejudice refers to negative assessments of those groups.
We always see through our "cultural glasses"
Everyone thinks in stereotypes and develops certain prejudices.
This reduction is necessary to be able to classify situations and encounters as quickly as possible and to act accordingly.
Without stereotypes, people probably could not bear the complexity of the world.
However, if a stereotype is not individually differentiated and reflected, it can be rigid and discriminatory.
4. Culture is like an Iceberg
Figure: Model of Logical levels (cf. Bateson, G., 1972; Dilts, R., 1994, 1997)
Spirituality
- We are shaped by basic religious and philosophical values that have shaped the ethical principles of every culture for centuries.
- This cultural identity is based on belief and value systems that determine what we believe is good and right
- Values affect what strategies and rules we use to manage our daily lives
- These attitudes and rules are then reflected in behavior with which we also shape our environment
- On the other hand, the environment also influences behavior (e.g., through climatic conditions), the development of certain abilities, or the formation of certain ways of life..
Visitors, that get to experience a culture for the first time, will firstly experience everything what's on the surface of the iceberg. For example, they will learn about cultural artefacts like the music, fashion, art or literature. Visitors will get to know how people greet each other, how they welcome visitors, express their emotions and what kind of physical gestures they use in which situations.
However, what lies beneath the surface is termed "invisible culture" or "deep culture". The layers below can be explored by visitors only step-by-step. Sometimes, they remain unconscious even for the members of the culture themselves. If you get the chance to deeply get to know a culture, you will experience for example how much value a culture ascribes to their family life and how social interactions are organized; how they carry out their work; how friendships are formed and what gender role expectations a society holds for its members.
What also lies beneath the surface are the underlying beliefs, values, norms, understanding of hierarchy and how a culture treats foreigners and outsiders. Cultural values include notions of good and bad, right or wrong, while cultural norms constitute what kind of behavior is appropriate or not in a given situation. Norms answer the question concerning what is right and what is wrong: "how I should behave?", when values answer the question concerning shared ideals: "how I desire to behave?".
However, what lies beneath the surface is termed "invisible culture" or "deep culture". The layers below can be explored by visitors only step-by-step. Sometimes, they remain unconscious even for the members of the culture themselves. If you get the chance to deeply get to know a culture, you will experience for example how much value a culture ascribes to their family life and how social interactions are organized; how they carry out their work; how friendships are formed and what gender role expectations a society holds for its members.
What also lies beneath the surface are the underlying beliefs, values, norms, understanding of hierarchy and how a culture treats foreigners and outsiders. Cultural values include notions of good and bad, right or wrong, while cultural norms constitute what kind of behavior is appropriate or not in a given situation. Norms answer the question concerning what is right and what is wrong: "how I should behave?", when values answer the question concerning shared ideals: "how I desire to behave?".
One can possibly imagine that the ignorance of the underlying traditions, values, beliefs and norms of a culture can lead to unintentional clashes among people from different cultural groups. We tend to interpret another culture's behavior by the cultural reference frame we grew up in, and typiclly the most challenging conflicts and misunderstandings derive from the deeper structures of culture. In this way, we might not even realize that we have violated another culture's values or norms in a particular situation. As visitors spend more time interacting with individuals of a new culture, the factors that are hidden underneath are beginning to show.
The model of the "Logical Levels" was established by the cultural anthropologist Gregory Bateson (1972) and was further developed by Robert Dilts (NLP - Neuro-linguistic programming) (1994, 1997). It is a model that aims at describing learning, communication and perception.
Gregory Bateson (1972) emphasised that, in the processes of learning, change and communication, there is a natural hierarchy. The function of every level is to organise the information from the level below. Changes at a higher level inevitably lead to changes on the lower level.
The identity of a person is based on specific talents and skills and also on his/her belief and value system. The skills and values, etc. are expressed through behaviour. All of this has an influence on the environment in which people live. The inverse applies as well: the environment (e.g. through climatic conditions) influences behaviour, one's skills, etc.
Gregory Bateson (1972) emphasised that, in the processes of learning, change and communication, there is a natural hierarchy. The function of every level is to organise the information from the level below. Changes at a higher level inevitably lead to changes on the lower level.
The identity of a person is based on specific talents and skills and also on his/her belief and value system. The skills and values, etc. are expressed through behaviour. All of this has an influence on the environment in which people live. The inverse applies as well: the environment (e.g. through climatic conditions) influences behaviour, one's skills, etc.
5. Culture Shock
Our mental software contains basic values, which have been acquired early in our lives and operate on an unconscious level. The international visitor can learn some of the symbols and rituals of the new environment, but it is unlikely that they can recognise or even feel the underlying values. In a way the visitor returns to the state of an infant, in which they have to learn the simplest things again.
Experience has shown that there is a typical curve of cultural adaptation. Hofstede (2001) describes this curve as follows :
Figure: Culture shock (Own illustration based on Oberg, 1960)
(cf. Hofstede, 2001, p. 288)
- Phase 1: is a time of euphoria, the honeymoon, characterised by a love of travel and curiosity about the other country; usually doesn’t last long.
- Phase 2: is the time of culture shock, when daily life in the new environment begins.
- Phase 3: is acculturation, otherwise known as cultural adaptation, when the foreigner learns to live under the new conditions, when they have learned some of the foreign customs, and when they have been integrated into the new network.
- Phase 4: is then the mental stability which is finally achieved; this phase can take three different forms. Either the foreigner continues to feel like a foreigner, or they feel just like they´re at home and are able to live in both cultures; alternatively, they may also feel more comfortable in the foreign culture - in other words, they are more Roman than the Romans.
The length of the phases varies and depends on the length of time spent in the foreign country. People who have spent many years abroad report of shock phases lasting a year.
From the opposite perspective, foreigners are experienced by insiders (locals) in 3 phases:
- Phase 1: Curiosity, which means they take a positive interest in the foreigner. This phase corresponds to the euphoric phase.
- Phase 2: Ethnocentrism. In this phase, insiders evaluate guests/ newcomers/ foreigners based on their own norms. Their own little world is thus viewed as the centre and pivot point of the world. Ethnocentrism is related to a culture in the same way that egocentrism is related to a person (this phase corresponds to culture shock).
- Phase 3: In a best case scenario, this phase transforms into the polycentrism phase. This means that different persons are measured by different yardsticks, and foreigners are understood based on their own norms. This is a milder form of multiculturalism.Sometimes, however, this phase can turn into xenophobia.In this case, everything in the foreign culture is considered far worse than at home.Neither ethnocentrism nor xenophobia form a healthy basis for intercultural cohabitation.
6. Insights into Culture
Video - Romanian Students' Ideas about Culture
In this video, we get a glimpse into what insights some Romanian students have gained from their respective exchange experiences.
7. Online Activity
Please notice: This exercise only represents stereotypes and does not reflect the reality. Generalization may be sometimes useful however to better prepare for expected differences!
Your task is to relate the logical levels (represented by the definitions on the left side) to typical German or typical Brazilian attributes.
Your task is to relate the logical levels (represented by the definitions on the left side) to typical German or typical Brazilian attributes.
8. Self Assesment
In your experience, what are the typical characteristics of a foreigner?
Please click the "Auswerten" (evaluation) button twice in order to make the result visible!
Please click the "Auswerten" (evaluation) button twice in order to make the result visible!
You are absolutely right! The test is simply stupid, cheeky and absurd. It is only good for tossing it into the rubbish bin. This is what we have been thinking for a long time - but we had to find out how deep and strong the "ideology of inequality" still persists today (even in ourselves). We appreciate that you have failed this test and we hope that you will continue to maintain this positive attitude towards other cultures in the future!
9. Individual Reflections
Homework - Individual Reflections
1. People are not only determined by their national culture, but also by social class, age, gender, company affiliation, etc. Which cultural groups do you feel you belong to? Give reasons for your statements. Were there times when you were particularly proud to be a member of one of the groups or were there painful experiences regarding one of the cultural groups?
Answer here
2. To what extent are your own behavior patterns influenced by your values and world views, but also by the environment you live in?
Output: comment to this post or post a podcast or a short video
Answer here
3. Have you ever experienced a culture shock? How did it feel? Which strategies were useful to overcome this shock?
Output: comment to this post or post a podcast or a short video Answer here
4. We can define culture through metaphors. If you were to offer a metaphor to express the meaning of the notion of culture, what would it be? Explain why do you think your metaphor is appropriate.
Output: comment to this post or post a podcast or a short video
Answer here
10. Additional Information & Literature
For additional Information, please check the links down below:
Metaphors for "Culture"
West and East, Cultural Differences
The parable of the elephant
How Culture Drives Behaviours
Culture Shock
Funny cultural differences
Bibliography
Berninghausen J., Hecht- El Minshawi, B., Interkulturelle Kompetenz, Managing Cultural Diversity, Trainingshandbuch, Frankfurt 2007
Brislin, R., Understanding Culture`s Influence on behavior, Harcourt College Publishers, 2000
Dilts, R. B. Effective Presentation Skills, Meta publications 1994
Dilts, R. B. Kommunikation in Gruppen und Teams, Paderborn, 1997
Geertz, C. The Interpretation of Culture, New York, 1973
Hansen , K.P. Kultur und Kulturwissenschaft, A. Francke Verlag, Tübingen und Basel 2003, 3. Auflage
Hofstede, G. Culture and Organizations: The software of the mind, McGraw Hill, New York 1991/1997
Hofstede, G. Lokales Denken, globales Handeln, Kulturen, Zusammenarbeit und Management, München,1997
Institut für Interkulturelles Management (Hg) Interkulturelles Personalmanagement, Gabler, Wiesbaden 1994
Trompenaars, F. Riding the waves of culture. Understanding cultural diversity in Business, London, 1998
Utley, D. The Culture Pack, Intercultural Communications Resouces for trainers, York,